Author(s): Neha Dabral
Hydrogen, A New Clean Energy Source for India
In February 2022, the Ministry of Power, Government of India issued the country’s first green hydrogen policy. The ‘National Hydrogen Mission’ was launched earlier in August 2021, with the goal of making India a green hydrogen production and export centre. These developments indicate that hydrogen gas will play a new role in India’s clean energy future.
India, as a signatory to the Paris Agreement, has set ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement aspires to keep global temperature increase to well below 2 degrees Celsius, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, above pre-industrial levels. At the historical UN Climate Change Conference held in Glasgow (COP26) India has pledged to achieve the following goals:[1]
“First- India will reach its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030. Second- India will meet 50 per cent of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030. Third- India will reduce the total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now onwards till 2030. Fourth- By 2030, India will reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by less than 45 per cent. And fifth- by the year 2070, India will achieve the target of Net Zero.”
A transition to clean energy systems will also address the pressing issue of extremely poor air quality in urban areas of India. The 2020 Environmental Performance Index[2] published by the Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy has ranked India as 179 out of 180 countries in terms of the direct impact of air pollution (PM2.5 exposure, household solid fuels, and ozone exposure) to human health. If India does not embrace a low-carbon economic model, future increases in demand for energy-intensive goods and services will have an impact on air quality and human well-being.
The role of technology in achieving a carbon-free economy
Technical advancements such as advanced batteries, hydrogen electrolysers, and direct air capture and storage will be critical in lowering carbon dioxide emissions around the world between 2030 and 2050.[3] The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has identified renewable power, electricity storage, hydrogen, and biomass-based electricity and fuels as the most realistic energy alternatives in a zero-carbon economy in India.[4] So far, India has promoted solar, wind, small hydro, biomass, and bagasse as well as battery storage and pump hydro projects, through public policy and regulatory interventions at the national and state levels. Hydrogen gas may now be a component of India’s clean energy future.
The potential versatility of hydrogen
The idea of global economies relying on hydrogen as the major commercial fuel (replacing the incumbent – fossil fuels) may appear far-fetched at the moment. However, as numerous supporting technologies coalesce around the net zero goal, a hydrogen-led economic model may become a viable option in the future. Hydrogen is an energy carrier produced from primary sources of energy, such as natural gas, water, biomass, etc. Once it has been obtained from primary sources of energy, hydrogen can then be converted to electricity using fuel cell technology, with heat and water as by products. Electricity produced from hydrogen fuel cells could be utilised for numerous applications in the future, including powering institutions and buildings, transportation, and grid-based energy storage systems in the power sector.
However, if hydrogen is to be regarded a true contributor to the net zero agenda, a low carbon manufacturing pathway will be required. The present hydrogen generation method, which uses fossil fuels, produces about 830 million tonnes (MT) of carbon dioxide each year. A clean alternative is water electrolysis, a zero-emission process that separates water into its core elements of hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. The hydrogen produced by water electrolysis is referred to as “green hydrogen” as long as the electricity used is from renewable sources.[5]
Green hydrogen has the potential to support a low-carbon economic model by (a) serving as a zero-carbon feedstock in fertilizer and petrochemical industries; (b) decarbonising hard to electrify sectors such as iron ore and steel; (c) decarbonizing long-distance, heavy-duty transportation, such as maritime shipping, trucks, and aviation; (d) decarbonizing heating in buildings and establishments; (e) storing surplus renewable electricity; and (f) increasing power system flexibility by using hydrogen and ammonia in gas turbines. Furthermore, hydrogen has the potential to increase energy security, reduce reliance on imported energy, and promote energy exports. This contrasts with hydrogen’s limited application in today’s economy, which is mostly in crude oil refining, and the production of ammonia and methanol, and steel.
India’s green hydrogen policy
The National Hydrogen Energy Board of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) released the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map in 2006 to identify pathways that will lead to the gradual introduction of hydrogen in India, accelerate commercialization efforts, and facilitate the creation of supporting infrastructure. However, it does not appear that the roadmap has resulted in major change. With the launch of the National Hydrogen Mission in August 2021, which was preceded by a proposal in India’s Union Budget for FY 2021-22 and followed by the green hydrogen policy in 2022, things appear to be reaching a tipping point.
India is currently aiming to produce 5 MT of green hydrogen per year by 2030[6], which is almost 80 per cent of the country’s current hydrogen needs. India consumes roughly 6 MT of hydrogen per year, largely in industrial sectors like fertilisers and refineries.[7] According to KPMG India, green hydrogen consumption might account for 20-30 per cent of total hydrogen demand by 2030, which is anticipated to be around 12 MT per year. Hydrogen consumption is expected to rise to 28 MT by 2050, including demand for new applications such as transportation and power generation. Furthermore, annual green hydrogen production of 40 MT would be required to achieve a net zero target by 2060.[8]
India’s green hydrogen policy has taken the approach of labelling green hydrogen to represent its sources and manufacturing methods. The policy defines green hydrogen/green ammonia as “hydrogen/ammonia produced by way of electrolysis of water using renewable energy, including Renewable Energy which has been banked and the Hydrogen/ Ammonia produced from biomass.”
The policy aims to boost hydrogen generation by implementing a number of measures, including, (i) waiving off inter-state transmission system (ISTS) charges for 25 years for green hydrogen production projects commissioned before 30th June 2025; (ii) reduced charges on electricity supplied by distribution licensees to green hydrogen plants in their states; (iii) allowing the renewable electricity consumed by green hydrogen plants to be considered towards the fulfilment of their Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) requirements; and (iv) banking facility for surplus renewable electricity up to 30 days at reduced costs.
The following market-creation measures are included in the policy: (i) allowing green hydrogen developers to use renewable energy from a co-located renewable energy plant, or sourced from remotely located renewable energy plants, whether set up by the same developer, or a third party or procured renewable energy from the power exchange; (ii) allowing land in renewable energy parks as well as in the proposed manufacturing zones to be set up by the Government of India for the manufacture of green hydrogen; (iii) allowing green hydrogen manufacturers to set up bunkers near ports for storing green hydrogen for export/use by shipping; and (iv) consolidated bids for procurement of green hydrogen through any of the designated implementing agencies.
The policy also aims to make it easier to start hydrogen projects by, for example, (i) a single-window statutory clearance system; (ii) grid connectivity at the generator end on a priority basis; and (iii) grant of open access for sourcing of renewable energy within 15 days of receipt of application.
The issues and challenges of the hydrogen economy
Despite decades of interest in hydrogen’s potential as an energy carrier, it has failed to play a significant role in global energy networks. Recent developments, such as global climate commitments, the availability of cheaper surplus renewable electricity, advancements in hydrogen fuel cell technology, increased electric mobility, and rising fuel costs triggered by international geopolitics suggest that the golden age for hydrogen may be quickly approaching. In this context, the question arises as to what has hampered the widespread adoption of hydrogen as an energy carrier thus far, and why a change to mass hydrogen deployment in the global energy system is likely in the future. Furthermore, it is worthwhile to understand the concerns and challenges associated with its wide-scale deployment.
Green hydrogen is only one piece of the clean energy puzzle
According to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) forecast for India’s future energy mix, coal and gas will account for around 55 percent of power generation in 2030. This is because, rather than replacing its existing installed capacity, India plans to transit to a hybrid energy system by adding extra renewable energy capacity. The deployment of green hydrogen in India’s energy mix has to be viewed in the above context.
TERI has stated that “Hydrogen is not a panacea for the challenge of energy transition and will not be suitable for use in all areas of the energy system”.[9] To begin with, hydrogen adoption would depend on a variety of circumstances, including the needs of various economic sectors, India’s renewable electricity context, and the trade-offs of competing energy pathways. Secondly, just because green hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier does not ensure that enterprises will adopt it, particularly if their existing systems rely on other fuels and technologies, as well as the associated costs of change. Thirdly, hydrogen is a complimentary approach that will most likely follow other initiatives like electrification of end-use sectors, and its deployment will be limited to specific applications.[10]
Hence, what role will green hydrogen play in India’s future energy mix, and what applications will it find in the Indian economy, are crucial questions before the industry and policymakers. In this context, a long-term strategy and roadmap, as well as policies, legal framework, legislations, finance, and infrastructure, will be required to support diverse business models and emerging technologies for the hydrogen ecosystem.
A cohesive policy framework on green hydrogen
On 31st May 2021, the MNRE circulated the draft ‘National Hydrogen Energy Mission’ document among the stakeholder Ministries/Departments for Inter-Ministerial consultation. The proposed Hydrogen Mission’s goal is to increase green hydrogen production and utilisation, while also aligning India’s efforts with international best practices in technology, policy, and regulation.[11] According to the MNRE’s Budget Highlights for the renewable energy sector (2021-22), the draft Hydrogen Mission document is expected to establish India’s vision, goal, and direction for hydrogen energy. The goal of the draft Mission document is to recommend a short-term (4-year) plan as well as long-term principles (10 years and beyond), encompassing important areas of the hydrogen value chain, and to establish a single framework and governance structure.[12] It has also been announced that a draft Note for the Cabinet for mandating Green Hydrogen Consumption Obligation (GHCO) in fertilizer production and petroleum refining for the period FY 2023-24 to FY 2029-30 has been circulated for Inter-Ministerial consultation.[13] So far, neither the aforementioned draft Note for the Cabinet nor the draft Hydrogen Mission document has been made public.
On 17th February 2022, the MOP, GOI issued India’s first green hydrogen policy. Further, the production linked incentive (PLI) scheme for the manufacture of ‘High Efficiency Solar PV Modules’ that was introduced in the Union Budget 2021-22 is expected to act as a supporting initiative. Apart from the above, a framework linked to ‘Make in India’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ is expected to be announced to encourage hydrogen manufacturing through incentives and facilitation.
A cost comparison of green hydrogen against fossil fuels and blue hydrogen
The main challenge for green hydrogen’s commercial feasibility will be cost-related. Green hydrogen is currently not cost-competitive with existing fossil fuels and fossil-based hydrogen. The cost of producing green hydrogen in the EU is expected to be € 2.5 – 5.5 per kg,[14] while grey hydrogen costs around € 1.5 per kg.[15] Green hydrogen is predicted to be cost competitive with grey hydrogen by the mid-2030s globally, and even sooner in China, Brazil, and India.[16] Depending on the renewable energy mix, the current cost of producing green hydrogen in India ranges from USD 3.6 to 5.8 per kg (about Rs. 279 to 450 per kg).[17] According to TERI, India’s current green hydrogen production cost is between Rs. 300 and 440 per kg, which is comparable to Rs. 150 per kg for grey hydrogen.[18] India will achieve a price of less than USD 1 per kg (approximately Rs. 78 per kg) within a decade according to some industry predictions.[19]
The production cost of green hydrogen is essentially determined by (i) the cost of electricity produced from renewable energy, (ii) the capital cost of the electrolysers, and (iii) the capacity utilisation factor of the installed electrolysers. Renewable power accounts for roughly 50 to 60 per cent of the cost of hydrogen production, with 1 kg of green hydrogen requiring about 50 kWh of power. Furthermore, considering the relatively high cost of electrolysers today, a short-term cost decrease in hydrogen production may be accomplished by using lower-cost renewable electricity.
According to ICRA, the levelised cost of producing green hydrogen is between USD 5.5 and 6 per kg (approximately Rs. 428 and 466 per kg) at a delivered renewable cost of procurement of Rs. 3.5 per unit (including intra-state wheeling and transmission charges in captive mode). The cost of producing green hydrogen can drop by USD 0.5 to 1 per kg (roughly Rs. 39 to 78 per kg) at sites where renewable generation capacity and electrolysers are co-located due to savings in intra-state open access charges.[20] According to another estimate,[21] the cost of producing green hydrogen would be Rs. 500 per kg at a renewable electricity factory gate cost of Rs. 4 to 7 per kWh, which would include the generation site cost of solar energy of Rs. 2 per kWh, as well as the levies incurred during its transit in various states. Because the current green hydrogen policy allows such projects open access without ISTS charges for 25 years, the expected production cost for hydrogen projects commissioned before 30th June 2025 would be cheaper.
Increased capacity utilisation of capital-intensive hydrogen electrolysers is another method to lower the cost per unit of green hydrogen. It is expected that an overall electrolyser capacity factor of 60 to 70 per cent will be required for this purpose.[22],[23] To accomplish this, hydrogen plants will require higher availability of renewable electricity. While the cost of renewable energy has decreased over time, its availability remains variable depending on the time of day and season. As a result, the plant-load factor for renewable electricity generation is often low, ranging between 20 and 35 per cent. Therefore, the proportion of electricity costs to the ultimate cost of green hydrogen will be determined by the efficiency of the hydrogen generation process.
In the above context, technological innovations (such as battery energy storage and energy banking systems, electrolyser technology, etc.), business models, market mechanisms, supportive regulations and subsidies will be effective to bring down the production cost of green hydrogen. Indian policymakers may also consider incentivising blue hydrogen (hydrogen produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage technologies) to scale up the hydrogen economy while bringing down costs in the short run.
The challenges of renewable energy
Around 60 GW incremental renewable energy capacity would be needed if India is to fulfil just 30 per cent of its hydrogen demand from green hydrogen by 2030.[24] Additionally, sufficient renewable power generating capacity is required to ensure that green hydrogen production does not displace more efficient direct electrification.[25]
As more renewable energy is used to generate electricity, voltage and frequency issues in the electrical network, as well as frequent power curtailments, are likely to arise. Green hydrogen can provide flexible power that leads to grid stability by (i) storing excess renewable electricity over long periods at competitive costs, (ii) directly connecting hydrogen generation points with energy demand hubs, and (iii) transporting excess renewable energy in liquid and compressed form once renewable electricity has been converted to hydrogen. Megawatt electrolyser units (beyond 3 MW) will be required to convert large quantities of renewable electricity to hydrogen. Electrolysers would compete with other emerging grid balancing alternatives like grid-scale battery energy storage solutions (BSES) and conventional large-scale energy storage technologies like pumped hydro and gas turbines in this function.
It is also likely that green hydrogen’s involvement in grid stabilisation may be limited because green hydrogen producers are more likely to replace surplus renewable energy at lower prices with regular renewable energy at normal rates, attaining high plant capacity utilisation and clean energy goals.[26]
Low carbon does not always imply efficiency or environmental friendliness.
Green hydrogen may not be as environmentally beneficial as it is made out to be, given concerns about water availability, land usage, efficiency, and the environmental and socio-economic impact of hydrogen supply chains. According to Australia’s National Hydrogen Strategy, at least 9 litres of water is required for producing 1 kg of green hydrogen through electrolysis.[27] This estimate will vary depending on the manufacturing method, technology, input water quality, and additional water needed for procedures like cooling. At the same time, the wastewater generated during electrolysis and desalination may have an environmental impact. The energy-water nexus (the effects of water use on energy consumption and the effects of energy production on water consumption) is well-known. Water scarcity is already putting strain on energy production around the world. Furthermore, decreased freshwater resources may lead to a greater reliance on groundwater.
In addition, the ‘round tripping’ of electricity into hydrogen and back to electricity results in significant energy losses. According to research by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), around 30 to 35 per cent of the energy used to produce hydrogen through electrolysis is wasted in the process. Additional energy is required for transporting hydrogen, which is roughly 10 to 12 per cent of the energy of the hydrogen itself. Furthermore, employing hydrogen in fuel cells can result in an additional energy loss of 40 to 50 per cent. As a result, direct electrification using renewable energy combined with energy efficiency may be a faster and more cost-effective way to decarbonising the energy system than using green hydrogen in many circumstances.[28] Apart from the foregoing, land constraints may hinder the production of renewable electricity for direct use and conversion to hydrogen in areas with abundant renewable energy supplies but dense populations, especially in co-located hydrogen clusters/hubs.
A transportation system based on hydrogen fuel cells vs. electric battery-powered vehicles
India’s electric mobility policy has developed in recent years, with the launch of Phase I and II of the ‘Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles’ schemes (FAME I and FAME II). The role of green hydrogen in transportation in India is now being discussed. NITI Aayog CEO Mr. Amitabh Kant highlighted green hydrogen as a sustainable mobility choice for long-distance transportation in his paper on disruptive change in a post-pandemic India.[29]
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways had notified hydrogen as a fuel for automotive application for Bharat Stage VI cars as early as September 2016. Following that, the Automotive Industry Standard issued safety and type approval standards for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, as well as notification of an 18 per cent blend of hydrogen with CNG (HCNG) as an automotive fuel. The MNRE announced that hydrogen fuel cell electric cars (FCEVs) are being researched in pilot programmes with corporate and government partners.[30] The Green Mobility Project in Union Territory of Ladakh being jointly executed by NTPC Renewable Energy Limited (NTPC REL) and NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Limited (NVVN) is one such pilot project. In July 2021, NTPC REL invited a domestic tender to set up India’s first Green Hydrogen Fuelling Station in Leh, Ladakh. Earlier, NVVN had floated a tender for procurement of Fuel Cell Buses for Ladakh. Apart from this, a dedicated 1.25 MW Solar plant is also being set up at Leh by NTPC REL to make the Hydrogen Fuelling Station completely green.[31]
In light of the foregoing, it is important to understand how different technologies, such as FCEVs, hybrid vehicles, and battery-based electric vehicles (BEVs), fit into India’s transportation transition. The learnings from the implementation of government programmes (FAME I and FAME II) could be useful in the future adoption of FCEVs. Furthermore, policy initiatives such as renewable fuel obligations and low-carbon fuel standards, safety regulations will all be necessary in the times to come.
The complexities of delivering hydrogen to the end-user
Green hydrogen is expected to be employed mostly in the industrial sector (chemicals, fertilisers, refineries, and steel) as well as ships and energy storage in the future. This makes a case for industrial clusters, hydrogen valleys, hydrogen hubs, etc., instead of a widely scattered application of hydrogen. The creation of hydrogen hubs, i.e., a network of green hydrogen producers, potential consumers, and related infrastructure located in close proximity, providing the synergies and efficiencies required early on for adoption and integration of hydrogen in the user sectors and the electricity system, is a key element in Australia’s national hydrogen strategy.
If widespread use of green hydrogen, especially in road transport FCEVs, is to be expected in the future, extensive infrastructure for storing and delivering hydrogen, including pipelines and storage tanks/reservoirs, will be required. A considerable portion of existing infrastructure might be repurposed for this purpose. In this context, the CEEW contends that hydrogen cannot be transported over existing natural gas pipe because it is prone to damage (due to embrittlement). As India extends its natural gas infrastructure, the CEEW recommends superior grade steel pipe or fibre reinforced plastic to build subterranean pipelines that are hydrogen ready.[32] Further, since hydrogen is flammable and explosive, hazardous activities like storing hydrogen on-site, transportation of hydrogen to end-use destination, and the operation of the hydrogen fuel cells will require a comprehensive set of safety codes and operating standards.
Bringing the hydrogen economy to India
Green hydrogen has two distinct potentials, (i) employing cleaner production processes in industries that already utilise hydrogen, and (ii) putting hydrogen to new uses, such as replacing current fuels and inputs, or complementing growing use of electricity in new applications.[33] Integrating green hydrogen into energy systems, like any other large-scale change, will take time. This supports the case for prioritising lower-cost, short-term opportunities that take advantage of current legislation, infrastructure, and hydrogen demand, and also a long-term national green hydrogen roadmap and targets for emerging hydrogen markets like transportation and utilities. Technology uncertainty, high costs, value chain and infrastructural requirements, issues associated with renewable energy, environmental difficulties, energy needs of a growing population and economy, and regulations and standards are all issues that the government must address in collaboration with various stakeholders in order to bring the hydrogen economy to India.
[1] National Statement by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi at COP26 Summit in Glasgow : Press Release on 01 Nov 2021 by PIB Delhi
[2] Wendling, Z.A., Emerson, J.W., de Sherbinin, A., Esty, D.C., et al. (2020). 2020 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven, CT: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy. epi.yale.
[3] Net Zero by 2050 A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector: International Energy Agency (IEA) (2021)
[4] Hall, W., Spencer, T., Renjith, G., and Dayal, S. 2020. The Potential Role of Hydrogen in India: A pathway for scaling-up low carbon hydrogen across the economy. New Delhi: The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI).
[5] Colour coding of hydrogen based on the emissions generated in its production : 1) Grey hydrogen: Produced from fossil fuels. Responsible for significant CO2 emissions; 2) Blue hydrogen: Produced from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage technologies. Less polluting than grey hydrogen; 3) Turquoise hydrogen: Produced from natural gas (a fossil fuel) using pyrolysis process. Not free from carbon emissions; 4) Green hydrogen: Produced using renewable energy using water electrolysis. Free from carbon emissions.
[6] Ministry of Power notifies Green Hydrogen/ Green Ammonia Policy: A Major Policy Enabler by Government for production of Green Hydrogen/ Green Ammonia using Renewable sources of energy : A step forward towards National Hydrogen Mission. Press Release posted on 17 Feb 2022 by PIB Delhi (Release ID: 1799067)
[7] National Hydrogen Mission (Ministry of New & Renewable Energy). Press Release posted on 21 Mar 2022 by PIB (Research Unit) : (RU-44-01-0067-210322/BACKGROUNDER)
[8] 2020. The Potential Role of Hydrogen in India : TERI
[9] 2020. The Potential Role of Hydrogen in India : TERI
[10] IRENA (2019), Hydrogen: A renewable energy perspective, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi
[11] Office Memorandum dated 15 June 2021 issued by the GOI, MNRE : OM No. 147/1/2021-P&C
[12] Budget 2021-22 augments Capital of SECI and IREDA to promote development of RE sector: National Hydrogen Mission proposed : Press Release on 09 Feb 2021 by PIB Delhi
[13] Office Memorandum dated 15 June 2021 issued by the GOI, MNRE : OM No. 147/1/2021-P&C
[14] Hydrogen is sold per kilogram (kg). The energy in 1 kg of hydrogen is estimated to be equal to 1 gallon of gasoline (3.785 litres of petrol). 1 kg of hydrogen contains 33.33 kWh of usable energy. Petrol and diesel hold about 12 kWh/kg (see www.h2data.de).
[15] A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe, European Commission Brussels, 8.7.2020 COM(2020) 301 final
[16] IRENA (2022), Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation: The Hydrogen Factor, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.
[17] Biswas, Tirtha, Deepak Yadav and Ashish Guhan.2020. A Green Hydrogen Economy for India: Policy and Technology Imperatives to Lower Production Cost. New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW).
[18] 2020. The Potential Role of Hydrogen in India : TERI
[19]https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/mukesh-ambani-sees-green-hydrogen-costs-coming-down-to-1-per-kg-in-10-yrs-121090300540_1.html
[20] Green Hydrogen policy, a positive step towards energy transition plans: Press Release 08 Mar 2022 by ICRA.
[21] https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/new-policy-to-cut-green-hydrogen-cost-by-40-50-per-cent-says-indian-oil/articleshow/89699187.cms
[22] https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/mix-of-wind-solar-energy-source-must-for-green-hydrogen-production-balram-mehta-coo-renew-power/91057510
[23] https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/giga-scale-green-hydrogen-developers-are-being-unrealistic-about-levelised-costs/2-1-1046646
[24] Green Hydrogen policy, a positive step towards energy transition plans: Press Release 08 Mar 2022 by ICRA.
[25] IRENA (2020), Green Hydrogen: A guide to policy making, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi
[26] https://about.bnef.com/blog/liebreich-separating-hype-from-hydrogen-part-one-the-supply-side/
[27] Commonwealth of Australia Australia’s National Hydrogen Strategy : ISBN: 978-1-922125-62-0 (print)
[28] IRENA (2020), Green Hydrogen: A guide to policy making, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi
[29] https://www.niti.gov.in/preparing-post-pandemic-economy-sunset-sunrise-areas-growth
[30] Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No: 2924; Answered On: 05.08.2021; Subject: Hydrogen as an Automotive Fuel
[31] https://www.ntpc.co.in/en/media/press-releases/details/ntpc-invites-tender-set-india%E2%80%99s-first-green-hydrogen-fuelling-station-leh
[32] Biswas, Tirtha, Deepak Yadav and Ashish Guhan.2020. A Green Hydrogen Economy for India: CEEW.
[33] The Future of Hydrogen Report prepared by the IEA for the G20, Japan : International Energy Agency (IEA)
All views expressed are personal
